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quarta-feira, 16 de março de 2016

Fravashi

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the 2014 Australian film, see Fravashi (film).
Part of a series on
Zoroastrianism
The Faravahar is a symbol of Zoroastrianism.
The Faravahar, believed to be a depiction of a fravashi
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Fravashi (fravaši, /frəˈvɑːʃi/) is the Avestan language term for the Zoroastrian concept of a personal spirit of an individual, whether dead, living, and yet-unborn. The fravashis of an individual sends out the urvan (often translated as 'soul') into the material world to fight the battle of good versus evil. On the morning of the fourth day after death, the urvan is imagined to return to its fravashi, where its experiences in the material world are collected to assist the next generation in their fight between good and evil.
In the 9/10th-century works of Zoroastrian tradition (the so-called Pahlavi books), Avestan fravashi continues as Middle Persian fravard (and -w- forms, fraward etc), fravahr, fravash or fravaksh.[1] The last days of a year, called frawardigan, are dedicated to the fravashis. The first month of the year as well as the 19th day of each month are considered under the protection of, and named after, the fravashis. The winged-disc symbol of Zoroastrianism is traditionally interpreted as a depiction of a fravashi.

Contents

Etymology

The word fravashi is commonly perceived to have var- "to choose," as its root. From reconstructed *fravarti (/rt/ clusters in Avestan usually appear as /š/), fravashi could then mean "one who has been selected (for exaltation)." The same root, in the sense of "to choose/profess a faith," is found in the word fravarane, the name of the Zoroastrian credo.
Other interpretations take other meanings of var- into consideration: Either as var- "to cover" that in a bahuvrihi with fra- "to ward" provides "protective valor," or a derivation from var- "to make/be pregnant" which gives "promoter of birth, birth-spirit." One interpretation considers a derivation from vart- "turn" hence "turning away, departing, death." The Epistles of Zadspram, a 10th century exegetical work, derives fravashi from fra-vaxsh "to grow forth."[2]

In scripture

Like most other Zoroastrian yazatas, the fravashis are not mentioned in the Gathas. The earliest mention of them is in the Old Avestan Yasna Haptanghaiti (Y. 37) which includes an invocation of "the fravashis of the righteous" (ashavan). In chapter 57 of the Yasna, the fravashis are responsible for the course of the sun, moon, and stars (and will do so until the renovation of this world), and in nurturing waters and plants, and protecting the unborn in the womb.
The principal source of information on the fravashis is Yasht 13 (frawardin Yasht), the hymn that is addressed to them and in which they appear as beings who inhabit the stratosphere, and aid and protect those who worship them, and in which the fravashis are presented on the same level as the lesser yazatas.[3] Yasht 13 is one of the eight "great" yashts, and at 158 verses the longest text in the collection, and one of the better preserved ones as well.[4] It is also the second-most frequently recited Yasht (after Yasht 1 to Mazda).[4] Several different authors contributed to the hymn, and its literary quality is uneven; while some verses are rich in traditional poetic phrases, others are of dully imitative prose.[3] The frequently repeated kshnuman (formulaic invocation) of Yasht 13 is "We worship the good, strong, bounteous fravašis of the righteous (ashavan)."
Yasht 13 begins with a cosmogonical chapter in which the Creator Ahura Mazda is portrayed as acknowleding that material creation was brought about with the assistance of "many hundreds, many thousands, many tens of thousands" of "mighty, victorious fravashis" (13.1-2). Moreover, Mazda is presented as acknowledging that without the help of the fravashis, cattle and men would have been lost to Angra Mainyu. "This declaration is wholly unorthodox, and unsupported by any other text."[3] Verses 14-15, as also several other verses scattered through the text, describe how the fravashis continue to sustain the material world and mankind in the post-creation phase of the world. Verses 16-17, as also several other later verses, celebrate their military prowess and assistance in battle, where they are invoked. Verse 20 includes an injunction to memorize their invocation, so as to be able to call on them in times of need.[3]
In 13.49-52, the hymn turns to the function of the fravashis in relation to the dead. There, the fravashis of the dead are said to return to their (former) homes during the last days of the year (Hamaspathmaedaya, frawardigan), hoping to be worshipped and receive gifts, in exchange for which they bless those who live there. This section (karda), known to priests by its opening words as the ya visatha, also appears in Siroza 1/2 and several Afrinagans, notably those of Arda Fravash (the 'righeous fravash') and Dahman (the yazata of prayer), and is thus a frequently recited passage.[3] In Yt. 13.65-68, the fravashi are associated with prosperity, and annually strive to ensure that "family, settlement, tribe, and country" has rain. Verses 149 and 155 are likewise related to the urvan of the dead, and offer worship to both urvan and fravashi as distinct parts of a mortal's immaterial nature.[5] And while they are said to have martial prowess in some passages, elswhere (13.49-52, 13.96-144), they are co-eval with the relatively helpless urvan.[6] This co-identification also occus elsewhere in the Avesta, such as in Yasna 16.7, where it is explicit.[7]
According to Mary Boyce, the perplexing anomalies of Yasht 13 are residual traces of fravashi cult, which she defines as a form of a ancestor worship and/or hero-cult that developed during (what she calls) the 'Iranian Heroic Age' (c. 1500 BCE onwards).[8]

In tradition

A graphic depiction similar to one carved in Persepolis.
Although there is no physical description of a fravashi in the Avesta, the faravahar, one of the best known symbols of Zoroastrianism, is commonly believed to be the depiction of one. The attribution of the name (which derives from the Middle Iranian word for fravashi) to the symbol is probably a later development. In Avestan language grammar, the fravashi are unmistakably female, while the faravahar symbol is unmistakably male.
In the Denkard's myth of Zoroaster's conception (Dk., 7.2.15-47), the prophet's frawahr is sent down from heaven within a unique hom-plant to be united on earth with his mortal body (tanu) and appointed glory (xwarrah).[9] In the Bundahishn's creation myth narrates a fable in which the fravashis are given a choice of either remaining protected with Ahura Mazda, or being born into mortals, suffering but also helping bring about the defeat of Angra Mainyu. The fravashis are shown the future before the creation of the getik material world. Ohrmazd's offer of security with inaction is rejected and the fravashi consent to enter the material world as active allies in the battle against evil (GBd. 34.12f).[10] In another cosmological myth (Zadspram 3.2-3), when Angra Mainyu breaks into the created world, the fravashis draw together on the rim of the sky to imprison him.[9] The Denkard, Shikand gumanic vichar, Menog i khrat, Zatspram, and several other works together include an extensive theological exegesis on the distinction between getik and menok (material and immaterial) aspects of creation, and between the fraward and urvan.[11]
In the hierarchy of the yazatas, the fravashis are the assistants of the Amesha Spenta Haurvatat (Middle Persian: Khordad) of "Wholeness", whose special domain are "the Waters" (Avestan Apo, Middle Persian: Aban).
In the day-name dedications of the Zoroastrian calendar, the fravashis preside over the 19th day of the month and the first month of the year, and both are named after the frawards. The intersection of the month-name and day-name dedications are the name-day feast of the frawards. This feast day of farvardin jashan is especially observed by Zoroastrians who have lost a relative in the preceding year. Additionally, the fourth watch (gah) of the twenty-four hour day, from sunset to midnight, is under the protection of the frawards.

References

Citations

  • Boyce 2001a, p. 195.

  • Bailey 1943, p. 109.

  • Boyce 2001b, p. 200.

  • Boyce 2001b, p. 199.

  • Boyce 2001b, p. 201.

  • Boyce 2001a, p. 196.

  • Boyce 2001a, p. 197.

  • Boyce 2001a, pp. 195-198.

  • Boyce 2001b, p. 197.

  • Bailey 1943, pp. 108-109.

    1. Bailey 1943, pp. 97-118.
    Works cited
    • Bailey, Harold Walter (1943), Zoroastrian Problems in the Ninth-Century Books, Ratanbai Katrak Lectures, Oxford: Clarendon.
    • Boyce, Mary (2001a), "Fravaši", Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. 10, Costa Mesa: Mazda, pp. 195–199
    • Boyce, Mary (2001b), "Frawardīn Yašt", Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. 10, Costa Mesa: Mazda, pp. 199–201.
    • Malandra, William (1971), The Fravaši Yašt, Ann Arbor: University Microfilms
    • Narten, Joanna (1985), "Avestisch frauuaši", Indo-Iranian Journal 28: 35–48, doi:10.1163/000000085790081930
    •  
    • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fravashi

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    Avesta - Zoroastrianism

    Avesta

    From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    For other uses of the word "Avesta", see Avesta (disambiguation).
    Part of a series on
    Zoroastrianism
    The Faravahar is a symbol of Zoroastrianism.
    The Faravahar, believed to be a depiction of a fravashi
    Primary topics
    Angels and demons
    Scripture and worship
    Accounts and legends
    History and culture
    Adherents
    Portal icon Zoroastrianism portal
    The Avesta /əˈvɛstə/ is the primary collection of sacred texts of the ancient Aryan religion known as Zoroastrianism, composed in the otherwise unrecorded Avestan language[1]
    The Avesta texts fall into several different categories, arranged either by dialect, or by usage. The principal text in the liturgical group is the Yasna, which takes its name from the Yasna ceremony, Zoroastrianism's primary act of worship, and at which the Yasna text is recited. The most important portion of the Yasna texts are the five Gathas, consisting of seventeen hymns attributed to Zoroaster himself. These hymns, together with five other short Old Avestan texts that are also part of the Yasna, are in the Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan language. The remainder of the Yasna's texts are in Younger Avestan, which is not only from a later stage of the language, but also from a different geographic region.
    Extensions to the Yasna ceremony include the texts of the Vendidad and the Visperad.[2] The Visperad extensions consist mainly of additional invocations of the divinities (yazatas),[3] while the Vendidad is a mixed collection of prose texts mostly dealing with purity laws.[3] Even today, the Vendidad is the only liturgical text that is not recited entirely from memory.[3] Some of the materials of the extended Yasna are from the Yashts, [3] which are hymns to the individual yazatas. Unlike the Yasna, Visperad and Vendidad, the Yashts and the other lesser texts of the Avesta are no longer used liturgically in high rituals. Aside from the Yashts, these other lesser texts include the Nyayesh texts, the Gah texts, the Siroza, and various other fragments. Together, these lesser texts are conventionally called Khordeh Avesta or "Little Avesta" texts. When the first Khordeh Avesta editions were printed in the 19th century, these texts (together with some non-Avestan language prayers) became a book of common prayer for lay people.[2]

    Contents

    Historiography

    The surviving texts of the Avesta, as they exist today, derive from a single master copy produced by Sassanian-era (224-651 CE) collation and recension. That master copy, now lost, is known as the 'Sassanian archetype'. The oldest surviving manuscript (K1)[n 1] of an Avestan language text is dated 1323 CE.[1] Summaries of the various Avesta texts found in the 9th/10th century texts of Zoroastrian tradition suggest that about three-quarters of the corpus has since been lost.[2]
    A pre-Sassanian history of the Avesta, if it had one, is in the realm of legend and myth. The oldest surviving versions of these tales are found in the 9th-11th century texts of Zoroastrian tradition (i.e. in the so-called Pahlavi books). The legends run as follows: The twenty-one nasks "books" of the Avesta were created by Ahura Mazda and brought by Zoroaster to his patron Vishtaspa (Denkard 4A, 3A).[4] Supposedly, Vishtaspa (Dk 3A) or another Kayanian, Daray (Dk 4B), then had two copies made, one of which was stored in the treasury, and the other in the royal archives (Dk 4B, 5).[5] Following Alexander's conquest, the Avesta was then supposedly destroyed or dispersed by the Greeks after they translated the scientific passages that they could make use of (AVN 7-9, Dk 3B, 8).[6] Several centuries later, one of the Arsacid kings named Valaksh (one of the Vologases) supposedly then had the fragments collected, not only of those that had previously been written down, but also of those that had only been orally transmitted (Dk 4C).[6]
    The Denkard also transmits another legend related to the transmission of the Avesta. In that story, credit for collation and recension is given to the early Sassanid-era priest Tansar (high priest under Ardeshir I, r. 224–242, and Shapur I, r 240/242-272), who had the scattered works collected, and of which he approved only a part as authoritative (Dk 3C, 4D, 4E).[7] Tansar's work was then supposedly completed by Adurbad Mahraspandan (high priest of Shapur II, r. 309-379) who made a general revision of the canon and continued to ensure its orthodoxy (Dk 4F, AVN 1.12-1.16).[8] A final revision was supposedly undertaken in the 6th-century under Khusrow Anoshiravan (Dk 4G).[9]
    In the early 20th century, the legend of the Arsacid collation engendered a search for an 'Arsacid archetype' of the Avesta. In the theory of Friedrich Carl Andreas (1902), the archaic nature of the Avestan texts was assumed to be due to preservation via written transmission, and unusual or unexpected spellings in the surviving texts were assumed to be reflections of errors introduced by Sasanian-era transcription from the Arsacid-era Aramaic-derived consonantal alphabet (Arsacid Pahlavi script).[n 2] The search for the 'Arsacid archetype' was increasingly criticisized in the 1940s and was eventually abandoned in the 1950s after Karl Hoffmann demonstrated that the inconsistencies noted by Andreas were actually due to unconscious alterations introduced by oral transmission.[10] Hoffmann identifies[11] these changes to be due[12] in part to modifications introduced through recitation;[n 3] in part to influences from other Iranian languages picked up on the route of transmission from somewhere in eastern Iran (i.e. Central Asia) via Arachosia and Sistan through to Persia;[n 4] and in part due to the influence of phonetic developments in the Avestan language itself.[n 5]
    The legends of an Arsacid-era collation and recension are no longer taken seriously.[16] It is now certain that for most of their long history the Avesta's various texts were handed down orally,[16] and independently of one another, and that it was not until around the fifth or sixth century that they were committed to written form.[1] However, during their long history, only the Gathic texts seem to have been memorized (more or less) exactly.[3] The other less sacred works appear to have been handed down in a more fluid oral tradition, and were partly composed afresh with each generation of poet-priests, sometimes with the addition of new material.[3] The Younger Avestan texts are therefore composite works, with contributions from several different authors over the course of several hundred years.
    The texts became available to European scholarship comparatively late. Abraham Anquetil-Duperron travelled to India in 1755, and discovered the texts among Indian Zoroastrian (Parsi) communities. He published a set of French translations in 1771, based on translations provided by a Parsi priest. Anquetil-Duperron's translations were at first dismissed as a forgery in poor Sanskrit, but he was vindicated in the 1820s following Rasmus Rask's examination of the Avestan language (A Dissertation on the Authenticity of the Zend Language, Bombay, 1821). Rask also established that Anquetil-Duperron's manuscripts were a fragment of a much larger literature of sacred texts. Anquetil-Duperron's manuscripts are at the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris ('P'-series manuscripts), while Rask's collection now lies in the Royal Danish Library, Copenhagen ('K'-series). Other large Avestan language manuscript collections are those of the British Museum ('L'-series), the K. R. Cama Oriental Library in Bombay, the Meherji Rana library in Navsari, and at various university and national libraries in Europe.
    The term Avesta is from Zoroastrian tradition. The meaning of the word is uncertain. Many etymologies have been suggested, but none has been universally accepted.

    Structure and content

    In its present form, the Avesta is a compilation from various sources, and its different parts date from different periods and vary widely in character. Only texts in the Avestan language are considered part of the Avesta.
    There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the texts of the Avesta and those of the Vedas; the similarities are assumed to reflect the common beliefs of Proto-Indo-Iranian times, with the differences then assumed to reflect independent evolution that occurred after the pre-historical split of the two cultures.
    According to Denkard, the 21 nasks (books) mirror the structure of the 21-word-long Ahuna Vairya prayer: each of the three lines of the prayer consists of seven words. Correspondingly, the nasks are divided into three groups, of seven volumes per group. Originally, each volume had a word of the prayer as its name, which so marked a volume’s position relative to the other volumes. Only about a quarter of the text from the nasks has survived until today.
    The contents of the Avesta are divided topically (even though the organization of the nasks is not), but these are not fixed or canonical. Some scholars prefer to place the categories in two groups, the one liturgical, and the other general. The following categorization is as described by Jean Kellens (see bibliography, below).

    The Yasna

    Main article: Yasna
    Yasna 28.1 (Bodleian MS J2)
    The Yasna (from yazišn "worship, oblations", cognate with Sanskrit yajña), is the primary liturgical collection, named after the ceremony at which it is recited. It consists of 72 sections called the Ha-iti or Ha. The 72 threads of lamb's wool in the Kushti, the sacred thread worn by Zoroastrians, represent these sections. The central portion of the Yasna is the Gathas, the oldest and most sacred portion of the Avesta, believed to have been composed by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) himself. The Gathas are structurally interrupted by the Yasna Haptanghaiti ("seven-chapter Yasna"), which makes up chapters 35-42 of the Yasna and is almost as old as the Gathas, consists of prayers and hymns in honour of the Supreme Deity, Ahura Mazda, the Angels, Fire, Water, and Earth. The younger Yasna, though handed down in prose, may once have been metrical, as the Gathas still are.

    The Visperad

    Main article: Visperad
    The Visperad (from vîspe ratavo, "(prayer to) all patrons") is a collection of supplements to the Yasna.[citation needed] The Visparad is subdivided into 23 or 24 kardo (sections) that are interleaved into the Yasna during a Visperad service (which is an extended Yasna service).
    The Visperad collection has no unity of its own, and is never recited separately from the Yasna.

    The Vendidad

    Main article: Vendidad
    The Vendidad (or Vidēvdāt, a corruption of Avestan Vî-Daêvô-Dāta, "Given Against the Demons") is an enumeration of various manifestations of evil spirits, and ways to confound them. The Vendidad includes all of the 19th nask, which is the only nask that has survived in its entirety. The text consists of 22 Fargards, fragments arranged as discussions between Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster. The first fargard is a dualistic creation myth, followed by the description of a destructive winter on the lines of the deluge mythology. The second fargard recounts the legend of Yima. The remaining fargards deal primarily with hygiene (care of the dead in particular) [fargard 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17, 19] as well as disease and spells to fight it [7, 10, 11, 13, 20, 21, 22]. Fargards 4 and 15 discuss the dignity of wealth and charity, of marriage and of physical effort, and the indignity of unacceptable social behaviour such as assault and breach of contract, and specify the penances required to atone for violations thereof. The Vendidad is an ecclesiastical code, not a liturgical manual, and there is a degree of moral relativism apparent in the codes of conduct. The Vendidad's different parts vary widely in character and in age. Some parts may be comparatively recent in origin although the greater part is very old.
    The Vendidad, unlike the Yasna and the Visparad, is a book of moral laws rather than the record of a liturgical ceremony. However, there is a ceremony called the Vendidad, in which the Yasna is recited with all the chapters of both the Visparad and the Vendidad inserted at appropriate points. This ceremony is only performed at night.

    The Yashts

    Main article: Yasht
    Faravahar, believed to be a depiction of a Fravashi, as mentioned in the Yasna, Yashts and Vendidad
    The Yashts (from yešti, "worship by praise") are a collection of 21 hymns, each dedicated to a particular divinity or divine concept. Three hymns of the Yasna liturgy that "worship by praise" are—in tradition—also nominally called yashts, but are not counted among the Yasht collection since the three are a part of the primary liturgy. The Yashts vary greatly in style, quality and extent. In their present form, they are all in prose but analysis suggests that they may at one time have been in verse.

    The Siroza

    The Siroza ("thirty days") is an enumeration and invocation of the 30 divinities presiding over the days of the month. (cf. Zoroastrian calendar). The Siroza exists in two forms, the shorter ("little Siroza") is a brief enumeration of the divinities with their epithets in the genitive. The longer ("great Siroza") has complete sentences and sections, with the yazatas being addressed in the accusative.
    The Siroza is never recited as a whole, but is a source for individual sentences devoted to particular divinities, to be inserted at appropriate points in the liturgy depending on the day and the month.

    The Nyayesh and Gah

    The five Nyayesh, abbreviated Ny., are prayers for regular recitation by both priests and laity.[2] They are addressed to the Sun and Mithra (recited together thrice a day), to the Moon (recited thrice a month), and to the Waters and to Fire.[2] The Nyayeshes are composite texts containing selections from the Gathas and the Yashts, as well as later material.[2]
    The five Gah are similar to the five Nyayesh texts. The five Gah contain invocations to the five divinities that watch over the five divisions (gah) of the twenty-four hour day.[2]

    The Afrinagan

    The Afrinagans are four "blessing" texts recited on a particular occasion: the first in honor of the dead, the second on the five epagomenal days that end the year, the third is recited at the six seasonal feasts, and the fourth at the beginning and end of summer.

    Fragments

    All material in the Avesta that is not already present in one of the other categories falls into a "fragments" category, which - as the name suggests - includes incomplete texts. There are altogether more than 20 fragment collections, many of which have no name (and are then named after their owner/collator) or only a Middle Persian name. The more important of the fragment collections are the Nirangistan fragments (18 of which constitute the Ehrbadistan); the Pursishniha "questions," also known as "Fragments Tahmuras"; and the Hadokht Nask "volume of the scriptures" with two fragments of eschatological significance.

    Other Zoroastrian religious texts

    Only texts preserved in the Avestan language count as scripture and are part of the Avesta. Several other secondary works are nonetheless crucial to Zoroastrian theology and scholarship.
    The most notable among the Middle Persian texts are the Dēnkard ("Acts of Religion"), dating from the 9th century; the Bundahishn ("Primordial Creation"), finished in the 11th or 12th century, but containing older material; the Mainog-i-Khirad ("Spirit of Wisdom"), a religious conference on questions of faith; and the Arda Viraf Namak ("Book of Arda Viraf"), which is especially important for its views on death, salvation and life in the hereafter. Of the post-14th century works (all in New Persian), only the Sad-dar ("Hundred Doors, or Chapters"), and Rivayats (traditional treatises) are of doctrinal importance. Other texts such as Zartushtnamah ("Book of Zoroaster") are only notable for their preservation of legend and folklore. The Aogemadaeca "we accept," a treatise on death is based on quotations from the Avesta.

    References

    Notes

  • K1 represents 248 leaves of a 340-leaf Vendidad Sade manuscript, i.e. a variant of a Yasna text into which sections of the Visperad and Vendidad are interleaved. The colophon of K1 (K=Copenhagen) identifies its place and year of completion to Cambay, 692Y (= 1323-1324 CE). The date of K1 is occasionally mistakenly given as 1184. This mistake is due to a 19th-century confusion of the date of K1 with the date of K1's source: in the postscript to K1, the copyist -- a certain Mehrban Kai Khusrow of Navsari -- gives the date of his source as 552Y (= 1184 CE). That text from 1184 has not survived.

  • For a summary of Andreas' theory, see Schlerath (1987), pp. 29-30.

  • For example, prefix repetition as in e.g. paitī ... paitiientī vs. paiti ... aiienī (Y. 49.11 vs. 50.9), or sandhi processes on word and syllable boundaries, e.g. adāiš for *at̰.āiš (48.1), ahiiāsā for ahiiā yāsā, gat̰.tōi for *gatōi (43.1), ratūš š́iiaoϑanā for *ratū š́iiaoϑanā (33.1).[13]

  • e.g. irregular internal hw > xv as found in e.g. haraxvati- 'Arachosia' and sāxvan- 'instruction', rather than regular internal hw > ŋvh as found in e.g. aojōŋvhant- 'strong'.[14]

    1. e.g. YAv. -ō instead of expected OAv. -ə̄ for Ir. -ah in almost all polysyllables.[15]
    Citations

  • Boyce 1984, p. 1.

  • Boyce 1984, p. 3.

  • Boyce 1984, p. 2.

  • Humbach 1991, pp. 50-51.

  • Humbach 1991, pp. 51-52.

  • Humbach 1991, pp. 52-53.

  • Humbach 1991, pp. 53-54.

  • Humbach 1991, p. 54.

  • Humbach 1991, p. 55.

  • Humbach 1991, p. 57.

  • Hoffmann 1958, pp. 7ff.

  • Humbach 1991, p. 56-63.

  • Humbach 1991, p. 59-61.

  • Humbach 1991, p. 58.

  • Humbach 1991, p. 61.

    1. Humbach 1991, p. 56.
    Works cited
    • Boyce, Mary (1984), Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism, Manchester UP.
    • Hoffmann, Karl (1958), "Altiranisch", Handbuch der Orientalistik, I 4,1, Leiden: Brill.
    • Humbach, Helmut (1991), The Gathas of Zarathushtra and the Other Old Avestan Texts, Part I, Heidelberg: Winter.
    • Kellens, Jean (1983), "Avesta", Encyclopædia Iranica, vol. 3, New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp. 35–44.
    • Schlerath, Bernfried (1987), "Andreas, Friedrich Carl: The Andreas Theory", Encyclopædia Iranica, vol. 2, New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp. 29–30.
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    SXSW 2016: 5 Tips From the Brains Behind 'Mr. Robot' On How to Make a Great Show


    SXSW 2016: 5 Tips From the Brains Behind 'Mr. Robot' On How to Make a Great Show


    Photo of Chris O'Falt By Chris O'Falt | Indiewire Março 15, 2016 at 11:30AM
    Series creator Sam Esmail imparts some knowledge, based on his experience making the award-winning series.

    0
    "Mr. Robot"
    "Mr. Robot"
    One year ago, "Mr. Robot" premiered at SXSW. Now, with a Golden Globe and a hit show that's transformed an entire network (USA), series creator Sam Esmail returned to Austin, along with his two stars (Rami Malek and Christian Slater) and a 100-foot Ferris wheel, to thank his now rabid fans.
    READ MORE: SXSW 2016 - Joe Swanberg Gets Honest About Making a Living in Indie Film
    During their SXSW panel, the "Robot" trio was extremely tight-lipped about season two during their SXSW, which just started production, except to say the ramifications of Elliott's (Malek) actions at the end of season one would introduce law enforcement into the show. What Esmail was far more open discussing was what he believes makes "Mr. Robot" work as show and what can be learned from their success.

    Rolling Takes

    "Mr. Robot" is filled with acting challenges for Malek, whose character's grip on reality is less than firm, and whose social anxiety can be intense. The key for Malek staying in the moment is that Esmail keeps the camera rolling.
    "We do a lot of rolling takes," explained Esmail. "We don't cut, we just keep doing the scene over and over and I think that helps with your rhythm and you [Malek] get into it more. The minute you call cut, there's all these people that want to come onto set - hair and makeup - it break up the rhythm, so we just keep going."
    Christian Slater, Sam Esmail and Rami Malek at the NBCUniversal Summer Press Day, April 2015.
    Chris Haston/NBCUniversal Christian Slater, Sam Esmail and Rami Malek at the NBCUniversal Summer Press Day, April 2015.

    A Movie Approach and a Movie Schedule

    "I'm a control freak when it comes to the look of the show," admitted Esmail, who was a fixture on the set in Season 1 and is now directing every episode in Season 2. "Most showrunners write, edit, shoot concurrently and they can multi-task. I'm more of the feature filmmaking brain of 'you write it, you shoot it, you cut it.' And directing all the episodes fits into that structure better."
    "No one knows what's going to happen in this story except Sam, so why wouldn't you want him directing everything?" added Slater.
    The other benefit is that by having all of the scripts written beforehand, and having only one director, "Mr. Robot" can be the rare TV show that can adopt a more feature film-like shooting schedule. "We are a lot more efficient," explained Esmail. "For example, if we go to a location and it's in Episode 1, 4 and 7, in traditional television you have to keep going back [to that location] and it's a little silly if you are doing something serialized." Now when they go to the location, Esmail will shoot the scene for all three episodes at once.
    "I was a bit trepidatious doing it -- I shot scenes from Episode 7 on my first day," admitted Malek.
    The season also began with a 12-hour read through all the scripts. "I've never done anything like that. It was incredible," added Slater.

    Read & Take An Acting Class

    During the Q&A, an aspiring writer asked what she could do break in as a writer. Esmail's advice: read and take an acting class.
    "Read a lot of books and a lot of screenplays," said Esmail. "Then you can see how you can write in different ways, because there's not one way to write a screenplay. After you do all that, take an acting class. You can get a script that's a good script, but poorly written for an actor, versus a script that maybe's ok, but is [well] written for an actor. Because at the end of the day you can have a tightly structured plot and all that, [but] in my opinion it's all about characters and how interesting those characters are. An acting class can really help in that department."

    Voice Over is a Not a Sin

    "I talk to myself," joked Esmail. "When I started writing the VO [voice over] I knew that because Elliott didn't talk to people that much, I needed to externalize his thoughts and feelings. I love VO. The cardinal law with screenwriting is never write VO, it's lazy. Do not listen to that advice. 'Clockwork Orange,' 'Goodfellas,' 'Taxi Driver' -- these are great films that have great VO. It's how you use it and how you make it into its own character. That's how I came up the idea that Elliott had a relationship with us [the audience]. It fits his psyche. It felt organic and made a lot of sense."
    A Clockwork Orange (small)

    Computer Authenticity Matters

    Mr. Robot is hardly the first TV show or movie that builds computer crime and crime fighting into a thriller plot, but for Esmail, the key to the show's success, and what set it apart, has been authenticity. "Everybody shoots computer screens and it's always green screens and the actors don't see what they are typing," explain Esmail. "It automatically throws me out of it. On top of that, they put bullshit into the screens that doesn't make any sense."
    The "Robot" creator believes strongly that authenticity with hacking and computers is just as important as authenticity in any other aspect of acting or filmmaking, which is why "Robot" employs hacking and FBI consultants, demands the art department create real screens (not just rolling matrix of ones and zeros) and that actors like Malik type real code.
    But it seems to pay off. For his part, Malek said that doing homework and practicing typing was just as important to his prep as anything else he did to get into character.
    READ MORE: SXSW Film 2016 Honors the Past While Facing an Exciting, Gaudy and Uncertain Future
    This article is related to: SXSW 2016, Mr. Robot, Sam Esmail, Rami Malek, Christian Slater
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    Indian police are stumped by a murder in a 50,000-year-old tribe

    Indian police are stumped by a murder in a 50,000-year-old tribe

    India-andaman-threat
    Not in isolation anymore. (AP Photo/Anthropological Survey of India)
    Written by
    Shelly Walia
    Quartz india
    A murder deep in the forests of the Andaman Islands has thrown Indian authorities into a bureaucratic and ethical conundrum: How to solve a crime committed within an isolated—and legally protected—ancient tribe?
    The Jarawa tribe is thought to have migrated from Africa to India 50,000 years ago, and now occupies 300 square miles of forest in the Andaman Islands, in the Bay of Bengal. Its members number about 400, who only ventured out of the forests 18 years ago. Local police are restricted from interfering in their lives, in the hopes of preserving their Paleolithic-era culture. But now, the death of an apparently mixed-race infant opens the possibility of that a tribe member will be arrested for the first time in history, according to the New York Times.
    Two years ago, a tribal man revealed that girls in the Jarawa tribe were being sexually abused by poachers. His anonymous 2014 interview with the Guardian exposed the price the tribe was paying for contact with outsiders: That year, eight Jarawa girls had been kidnapped, he alleged. “The girls say the outside boys press them lots,” he told the Guardian. “They press them using hands and nails, when the girls get angry. They chase them under the influence of alcohol. They fuck the girls. They drink alcohol in the house of girls. They also sleep in Jarawa’s house.”
    Their ordeal seems only to have grown more torturous since then. According to the Times, the mixed-race, light-skinned boy was born to an unmarried Jarawa woman last year. In November 2015, the infant—then five months old—was murdered from within the tribal group.
    So far, Indian authorities have proceeded with caution. Only two non-Jarawa men have been arrested: a 25-year-old accused of raping the infant’s mother, and another man accused of offering alcohol to the alleged murderer.
    Authorities in Andaman—home to three other tribal groups—constantly debate whether the Jarawa should be exposed to the modern world, and how to handle their inevitable interactions with it. Some argue that the ancient tribe should not be denied the fruits of civilization, while others worry that contact will only bring ruin. That debate has now spilled over to the case of the murdered child.
    “I think they have the right to maintain the purity of their race. If they decide such a child should be wasted, let them do it,” Samir Acharya, an activist with the Society for Andaman and Nicobar Ecology, told the Times.
    “They are in a pre-civilization period,” Nupur Sarkar, a 28-year-old constable in Andaman village Tirur, echoed. “We deal with them on that basis.”
    This conundrum has the case hanging. “Nobody is above the law,” Atul Kumar Thakur, the police superintendent of South Andaman, told the Times. However, Indian law clearly states that the tribes have “special status,” and that authorities are “duty-bound to protect [tribal] interests.”
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    Watch: You Will Never See Patrick Stewart the Same Way After This 'Green Room' Trailer


    Watch: You Will Never See Patrick Stewart the Same Way After This 'Green Room' Trailer

    Photo of Kate Erbland By Kate Erbland | Indiewire Março 15, 2016 at 9:01AM
    The grisly new feature from Jeremy Saulnier just might establish the beloved actor as our next great bad guy.
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    Jeremy Saulnier's "Green Room" hasn't pulled any punches when it's come to its hyper-violent, dizzyingly terrifying marketing, including a couple of trailers that have scared the pants right off of us. This newest trailer does pretty much the same thing, but with one hell of an added twist, as it finally puts main baddie Patrick Stewart (Patrick Stewart! of all people!) front and center, all menacing weirdness and inexplicable motives. Sorry about the nightmares, and make sure you stay away from that fan.
    READ MORE: Cannes Review: 'Blue Ruin' Director Jeremy Saulnier Scores Again With Bloody 'Green Room'
    The official synopsis for the film reads: "The Ain’t Rights, down-on-their-luck punk rockers, are finishing up a long and unsuccessful tour and are about to call it quits when they get an unexpected booking at an isolated, run-down club deep in the backwoods of Oregon. What seems merely to be a third-rate gig escalates into something much more sinister when they witness an act of violence backstage that they weren’t meant to see. Now trapped backstage, they must face off against the club’s depraved owner, Darcy Banker (Stewart), a man who will do anything to protect the secrets of his nefarious enterprise."
    "Green Room," starring a diabolical Stewart opposite Anton Yelchin, Imogen Poots and Alia Shawkat, will open in limited release starting April 15, before expanding nationwide on April 29. Watch the new trailer above.
    This article is related to: Green Room, Green Room, Jeremy Saulnier, Jeremy Saulnier
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